Key Insights
The Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives market, valued at $3.87 billion in 2025, is poised for robust growth throughout the forecast period (2025-2033). Driven by the burgeoning packaging, construction, and automotive sectors within the region, demand for EVA adhesives is expected to increase significantly. The rising preference for eco-friendly and high-performance adhesives, coupled with increasing disposable incomes and industrialization across several Asia-Pacific nations, further fuels market expansion. The market's historical growth (2019-2024) provides a strong foundation for projecting future performance. While precise CAGR figures for the historical period are unavailable, a conservative estimate based on industry trends points toward a solid annual growth rate. This sustained growth trajectory is anticipated to continue, propelled by ongoing infrastructure development, the rise of e-commerce and its associated packaging needs, and the increasing adoption of advanced adhesive technologies in diverse applications.
Significant opportunities exist for market players through strategic partnerships, product innovation, and geographic expansion within the Asia-Pacific region. The expanding consumer goods sector, particularly in emerging economies, presents a massive potential for EVA adhesives consumption. Further fueling this growth is the ongoing research and development in the adhesive industry, leading to the creation of specialized EVA adhesives with superior properties such as enhanced bonding strength, temperature resistance, and flexibility. This continuous innovation and adaptation to the specific requirements of various applications will likely drive higher adoption rates and contribute to the overall market expansion throughout the forecast period.

Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This dynamic report provides a detailed analysis of the Asia-Pacific EVA adhesives market, offering invaluable insights for businesses, investors, and stakeholders. Leveraging extensive research and data covering the period 2019-2033 (Base Year: 2025, Forecast Period: 2025-2033), this report unveils the market's structure, competitive landscape, growth drivers, challenges, and future outlook. It segments the market by country (Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Rest of Asia-Pacific), end-user industry (Aerospace, Automotive, Building & Construction, Footwear & Leather, Healthcare, Packaging, Woodworking & Joinery, Other End-user Industries), and technology (Hot Melt, Solvent-borne, Water-borne). The report forecasts a market value of XX Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of XX%.
Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Structure & Competitive Landscape
The Asia-Pacific EVA adhesives market exhibits a moderately concentrated structure, with key players like Henkel AG & Co KGaA, Dow, and H.B. Fuller Company holding significant market share. The market's dynamics are shaped by several factors:
- Innovation Drivers: Continuous R&D efforts focused on developing eco-friendly, high-performance EVA adhesives drive market growth. The emphasis on sustainable solutions, such as water-borne adhesives, is particularly significant.
- Regulatory Impacts: Stringent environmental regulations in several Asia-Pacific countries influence adhesive formulations and manufacturing processes. Compliance costs and the adoption of sustainable practices are key considerations.
- Product Substitutes: Competition from other adhesive types, such as hot melt adhesives based on different polymers, poses a challenge to EVA adhesives. However, EVA adhesives retain their competitive edge due to their cost-effectiveness and versatility.
- End-User Segmentation: The building and construction sector represents a substantial portion of the market, driven by infrastructural development across the region. Other significant end-user segments include packaging, automotive, and footwear.
- M&A Trends: The market has witnessed a moderate level of mergers and acquisitions in recent years, with larger players aiming to expand their product portfolios and geographic reach. The estimated M&A volume for the period 2019-2024 is approximately XX Million USD. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) for the market is estimated at XX, indicating a moderately concentrated market structure.
Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Market Trends & Opportunities
The Asia-Pacific EVA adhesives market is experiencing robust growth, fueled by several key trends:
The market size expanded from XX Million in 2019 to XX Million in 2024, demonstrating a steady increase. This growth is projected to continue at a CAGR of XX% during the forecast period, reaching XX Million by 2033. This expansion is attributed to several factors, including increasing demand from the construction sector, rising disposable incomes, and the expanding packaging industry. The market penetration rate of EVA adhesives in key end-user industries is also steadily increasing, reflecting a shift towards more efficient and reliable bonding solutions. Technological advancements in EVA adhesive formulations, such as the development of improved water-based adhesives, are further driving market growth and opening up new application opportunities. Furthermore, the rising focus on sustainability is creating demand for eco-friendly EVA adhesive options. Competitive dynamics remain intense, with companies focusing on innovation, cost optimization, and strategic partnerships to maintain market share.

Dominant Markets & Segments in Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market
China dominates the Asia-Pacific EVA adhesives market, driven primarily by its robust construction and manufacturing sectors. India and other Southeast Asian nations are also witnessing significant growth.
- Key Growth Drivers in China: Rapid urbanization, large-scale infrastructure projects, and a booming automotive industry are significant drivers.
- Key Growth Drivers in India: The expanding packaging industry, rising consumer spending, and government initiatives focused on infrastructure development are contributing to market growth.
- Leading End-User Segment: The building and construction sector holds the largest market share, followed by the packaging and automotive industries.
- Leading Technology Segment: Hot melt EVA adhesives dominate the market owing to their ease of application and fast curing time.
Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Product Analysis
The market offers a range of EVA adhesives tailored to various applications. Technological advancements focus on improving adhesive strength, durability, and environmental friendliness. Water-based EVA adhesives are gaining traction due to their reduced environmental impact. Competitive advantages are achieved through superior product performance, cost-effectiveness, and specialized formulations catering to niche applications.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market
Key Drivers:
- Strong economic growth across the region
- Increasing industrialization and infrastructure development
- Growing demand from end-user industries like construction and packaging.
Challenges:
- Fluctuations in raw material prices
- Intense competition among established and emerging players
- Stringent environmental regulations and rising compliance costs. These regulations add to the overall production cost, impacting profitability. The impact is estimated to be approximately XX% on average.
Growth Drivers in the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market
Several factors contribute to the market's growth trajectory: These include the rising demand from various end-user industries such as construction, automotive, and packaging, alongside technological advancements which enhance the functionality and sustainability of EVA adhesives. Favorable government policies and infrastructure development projects further stimulate the market's expansion.
Challenges Impacting Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Growth
The market faces challenges such as price volatility of raw materials, intense competition, and adherence to increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Supply chain disruptions and the impact of global economic fluctuations also pose significant obstacles.
Key Players Shaping the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market
- Henkel AG & Co KGaA
- OKONG Corp
- Paramelt B V
- Selic Corp Public Company Limited
- NANPAO RESINS CHEMICAL GROUP
- Arkema Group
- Dow
- H.B. Fuller Company
- Aica Kogyo Co Ltd
- CEMEDINE Co Ltd
Significant Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Industry Milestones
- May 2021: Henkel announced a EUR 60 Million investment in a new innovation center in Shanghai.
- June 2021: H.B. Fuller signed a distribution agreement with Jubilant Agri and Consumer Products for woodworking adhesives in India.
- July 2021: H.B. Fuller announced a strategic agreement with Covestro for sustainable adhesives. These initiatives signify a growing emphasis on innovation and sustainability within the industry.
Future Outlook for Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market
The Asia-Pacific EVA adhesives market is poised for continued growth, driven by sustained economic expansion, infrastructure development, and the increasing adoption of advanced adhesive technologies. Strategic partnerships, product innovation, and expansion into new markets will be crucial for companies seeking to capitalize on the substantial market potential.
Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Segmentation
-
1. End User Industry
- 1.1. Aerospace
- 1.2. Automotive
- 1.3. Building and Construction
- 1.4. Footwear and Leather
- 1.5. Healthcare
- 1.6. Packaging
- 1.7. Woodworking and Joinery
- 1.8. Other End-user Industries
-
2. Technology
- 2.1. Hot Melt
- 2.2. Solvent-borne
- 2.3. Water-borne
Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Asia Pacific
- 1.1. China
- 1.2. Japan
- 1.3. South Korea
- 1.4. India
- 1.5. Australia
- 1.6. New Zealand
- 1.7. Indonesia
- 1.8. Malaysia
- 1.9. Singapore
- 1.10. Thailand
- 1.11. Vietnam
- 1.12. Philippines

Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of < 5.00% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Growing Demand from Aerospace Industry; Rising Demand for Fuel Efficient and Light-weight Vehicles; Other Drivers
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Non-Degradable Nature of Reinforced Plastic; Other Restraints
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. OTHER KEY INDUSTRY TRENDS COVERED IN THE REPORT
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User Industry
- 5.1.1. Aerospace
- 5.1.2. Automotive
- 5.1.3. Building and Construction
- 5.1.4. Footwear and Leather
- 5.1.5. Healthcare
- 5.1.6. Packaging
- 5.1.7. Woodworking and Joinery
- 5.1.8. Other End-user Industries
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Technology
- 5.2.1. Hot Melt
- 5.2.2. Solvent-borne
- 5.2.3. Water-borne
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.3.1. Asia Pacific
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User Industry
- 6. China Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7. Japan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8. India Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9. South Korea Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10. Taiwan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Australia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Rest of Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 Henkel AG & Co KGaA
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 OKONG Corp
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Paramelt B V
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Selic Corp Public Company Limited
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 NANPAO RESINS CHEMICAL GROUP
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Arkema Group
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 Dow
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 H B Fuller Company
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.9 Aica Kogyo Co Ltd
- 13.2.9.1. Overview
- 13.2.9.2. Products
- 13.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.10 CEMEDINE Co Ltd
- 13.2.10.1. Overview
- 13.2.10.2. Products
- 13.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 Henkel AG & Co KGaA
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User Industry 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by End User Industry 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: China Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: China Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Japan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Japan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: India Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: India Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: South Korea Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: South Korea Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Taiwan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Taiwan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Australia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Australia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Rest of Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Rest of Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User Industry 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by End User Industry 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume K Tons Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: China Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: China Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: Japan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: Japan Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: South Korea Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: South Korea Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: India Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: India Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: Australia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: Australia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: New Zealand Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 42: New Zealand Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 43: Indonesia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 44: Indonesia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 45: Malaysia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 46: Malaysia Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 47: Singapore Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 48: Singapore Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 49: Thailand Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 50: Thailand Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 51: Vietnam Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 52: Vietnam Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 53: Philippines Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 54: Philippines Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market Volume (K Tons) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately < 5.00%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market?
Key companies in the market include Henkel AG & Co KGaA, OKONG Corp, Paramelt B V, Selic Corp Public Company Limited, NANPAO RESINS CHEMICAL GROUP, Arkema Group, Dow, H B Fuller Company, Aica Kogyo Co Ltd, CEMEDINE Co Ltd.
3. What are the main segments of the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market?
The market segments include End User Industry, Technology.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 3870 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Growing Demand from Aerospace Industry; Rising Demand for Fuel Efficient and Light-weight Vehicles; Other Drivers.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
OTHER KEY INDUSTRY TRENDS COVERED IN THE REPORT.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Non-Degradable Nature of Reinforced Plastic; Other Restraints.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
July 2021: H.B. Fuller announced a strategic agreement with Covestro to offer sustainable adhesives in the market.June 2021: H.B. Fuller signed a distribution agreement with Jubilant Agri and Consumer Products to promote its adhesive solutions in the woodworking segment in India.May 2021: Henkel announced an investment of EUR 60 million to construct a new innovation center for its Adhesive Technologies unit in Shanghai to strengthen its footprint in China.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million and volume, measured in K Tons.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Asia-Pacific EVA Adhesives Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence