Key Insights
The Nordic commercial printing market, valued at approximately €X million in 2025, is projected to experience steady growth with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.27% from 2025 to 2033. This growth is driven by several factors. The increasing demand for high-quality packaging solutions within the food and beverage, and consumer goods sectors is fueling market expansion. Furthermore, the continued need for marketing materials, especially in the advertising and publishing industries, despite the rise of digital media, sustains a core market segment. Technological advancements, such as the adoption of more efficient inkjet and digital printing methods, contribute to improved productivity and cost-effectiveness, thus driving market growth. However, the market also faces challenges. Rising paper costs and intense competition from digital printing alternatives pose significant restraints. The market is segmented by printing type (offset lithography, inkjet, flexographic, screen, gravure, and others) and application (packaging, advertising, publishing, and others). Offset lithography currently dominates, but inkjet printing is expected to gain significant market share due to its flexibility and cost-effectiveness for shorter print runs. The geographic distribution of the market is concentrated across Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and the rest of the Nordic region, with variations in market size based on individual country economic indicators and industry adoption rates.
The competitive landscape is characterized by a mix of large and smaller players, with companies like Ålgård Offset, Gota Media AB, and others catering to diverse market segments. The level of competition varies by application and printing technique. While larger companies benefit from economies of scale, smaller printers often cater to niche markets or specialize in particular printing methods. Future growth will be influenced by technological innovation, sustainability concerns (demand for eco-friendly inks and materials), and the ongoing adaptation to evolving consumer preferences and market demands. Specific regional variations within the Nordic countries will continue to influence market dynamics and opportunities for growth. Strategic partnerships and mergers and acquisitions will play a significant role in shaping the competitive landscape over the forecast period. The industry is likely to see further consolidation as companies seek to enhance their efficiency, expand their service offerings and adapt to the changing dynamics of the commercial printing sector.

Nordic Commercial Printing Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This dynamic report provides an in-depth analysis of the Nordic commercial printing market, offering valuable insights for businesses and investors. The study covers the period 2019-2033, with a focus on 2025 as the base and estimated year, and a forecast period of 2025-2033. The report leverages extensive data analysis and expert insights to unveil market trends, opportunities, and challenges. It explores market segmentation by type (Offset Lithography, Inkjet, Flexographic, Screen, Gravure, Other Types) and application (Packaging, Advertising, Publishing, Other Applications), featuring prominent players like Ålgård Offset, Gota Media AB, and others. Expect detailed analysis of market size, growth rates (CAGR), competitive dynamics, and future growth potential. This report is indispensable for strategic decision-making in this evolving market.
Nordic Commercial Printing Market Structure & Competitive Landscape
The Nordic commercial printing market exhibits a moderately concentrated structure, with a few large players holding significant market share. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) for 2025 is estimated at xx, indicating a moderately concentrated market. Innovation is driven by the adoption of digital printing technologies and sustainable printing practices, although traditional offset lithography still dominates. Regulatory impacts, primarily related to environmental regulations and data privacy, are increasingly important. The market is seeing substitution from digital alternatives, particularly for shorter print runs. End-user segmentation is diverse, encompassing publishers, advertisers, packaging companies, and others. M&A activity has been relatively low in recent years, with an estimated xx Million in deal value in 2024, driven primarily by consolidation amongst smaller players. This trend is expected to continue, with larger firms looking for opportunities to expand their market reach and service offerings.
- Market Concentration: Moderately concentrated, with HHI estimated at xx in 2025.
- Innovation Drivers: Digital printing technologies, sustainable printing practices.
- Regulatory Impacts: Environmental regulations, data privacy laws.
- Product Substitutes: Digital printing, online marketing alternatives.
- End-User Segmentation: Publishers, advertisers, packaging companies, others.
- M&A Trends: Low activity in recent years, with xx Million in deal value in 2024; expected to increase.
Nordic Commercial Printing Market Market Trends & Opportunities
The Nordic commercial printing market is experiencing a period of transition, with a shift towards digital printing technologies and a growing focus on sustainability. The market size reached xx Million in 2024, and is projected to grow at a CAGR of xx% from 2025 to 2033, reaching xx Million by 2033. This growth is driven by several factors including the increasing demand for customized packaging solutions, the ongoing digitalization of marketing and advertising, and the resilience of the publishing industry in certain segments. However, challenges remain, especially concerning the rise of digital alternatives and changing consumer preferences toward digital content. Market penetration rates for digital printing technologies are steadily increasing, while traditional offset lithography continues to maintain a significant share. Competitive dynamics are characterized by price competition and a focus on differentiation through service offerings and specialization.

Dominant Markets & Segments in Nordic Commercial Printing Market
Within the Nordic region, Sweden and Norway represent the most significant markets, driven by strong economies and a developed printing industry infrastructure. Offset lithography remains the dominant printing type, accounting for xx% of market share in 2025, followed by digital printing methods, which are gaining traction. In terms of application, packaging is the largest segment, fueled by the growing demand for customized packaging and e-commerce growth.
- Leading Regions: Sweden, Norway
- Leading Segment (By Type): Offset Lithography
- Leading Segment (By Application): Packaging
Key Growth Drivers:
- Strong economic performance in key Nordic countries.
- Increased demand for customized packaging.
- Government support for sustainable printing practices.
- Growing e-commerce sector.
Nordic Commercial Printing Market Product Analysis
The Nordic commercial printing market is witnessing significant product innovation, with a focus on higher-quality, faster turnaround times, and eco-friendly printing solutions. Technological advancements in digital printing, such as inkjet and toner-based systems, are improving efficiency and reducing costs. The market fit for these innovations is particularly strong in segments requiring shorter print runs and personalized output, such as packaging and direct mail marketing. The use of sustainable inks and materials is also gaining momentum, responding to growing consumer demand for environmentally responsible printing services.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Nordic Commercial Printing Market
Key Drivers:
- Growing e-commerce sector driving demand for packaging solutions.
- Government regulations promoting sustainability in the industry.
- Technological advancements in digital printing.
Key Challenges:
- Intense competition from digital alternatives.
- Rising costs of raw materials and energy.
- Fluctuations in demand due to economic uncertainties. This results in an average loss of xx Million annually for the industry.
Growth Drivers in the Nordic Commercial Printing Market Market
The primary growth drivers include sustained economic expansion in the Nordic region, resulting in increased demand across various applications. Technological advancements in digital printing continue to provide opportunities for greater efficiency and personalization. Government initiatives promoting sustainability within the industry also provide a boost to eco-friendly print options.
Challenges Impacting Nordic Commercial Printing Market Growth
The industry faces challenges from increased competition from digital alternatives, impacting market share. Supply chain disruptions, particularly regarding paper and ink sourcing, create cost and availability problems. Stringent environmental regulations might increase compliance costs, impacting profitability.
Key Players Shaping the Nordic Commercial Printing Market Market
- Ålgård Offset
- Gota Media AB
- Tryck i Norrbotten
- Aller Tryk A/S
- Amedia Trykk og Distribusjon
- ScandBook Holding
- V-TAB AB
- Pressgrannar AB
- Botnia Print
- Bold Printing Group AB
- UPC Center
- Schibsted Trykk AS
- Daily Print
- Alma Manu Oy
Significant Nordic Commercial Printing Market Industry Milestones
- 2020: Increased focus on sustainable printing practices among major players.
- 2021: Several smaller printing companies merge, creating larger entities.
- 2022: Significant investment in new digital printing technologies.
- 2023: Launch of several innovative packaging solutions utilizing eco-friendly materials.
Future Outlook for Nordic Commercial Printing Market Market
The Nordic commercial printing market is poised for continued growth, driven by technological innovation, and a focus on sustainable practices. Strategic partnerships and investments in new technologies will play a crucial role in shaping the future of the industry. Market participants who effectively leverage digitalization, personalization, and sustainability will secure a stronger competitive advantage and capitalize on market expansion.
Nordic Commercial Printing Market Segmentation
-
1. Type
- 1.1. Offset Lithography
- 1.2. Inkjet
- 1.3. Flexographic
- 1.4. Screen
- 1.5. Gravure
- 1.6. Other Types
-
2. Application
- 2.1. Packaging
- 2.2. Advertising
- 2.3. Publishing
- 2.4. Other Applications
Nordic Commercial Printing Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. Sweden
- 2. Norway
- 3. Finland
- 4. Denmark
- 5. Rest of Nordic Region

Nordic Commercial Printing Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 2.27% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1 ; Potential Industry Sectors & Increased Demand for Promotional Materials by the Retail
- 3.2.2 Food and Beverage Industries; The Introduction of Eco-friendly Practices
- 3.2.3 Reducing the Printing Industry's Impact on the Environment
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. ; Increase in Digitization and Rising Dependence on Feedstock Prices
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Digital Printing is Expected to Grow Significantly
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 5.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 5.1.2. Inkjet
- 5.1.3. Flexographic
- 5.1.4. Screen
- 5.1.5. Gravure
- 5.1.6. Other Types
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.2.1. Packaging
- 5.2.2. Advertising
- 5.2.3. Publishing
- 5.2.4. Other Applications
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.3.1. Sweden
- 5.3.2. Norway
- 5.3.3. Finland
- 5.3.4. Denmark
- 5.3.5. Rest of Nordic Region
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 6. Sweden Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 6.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 6.1.2. Inkjet
- 6.1.3. Flexographic
- 6.1.4. Screen
- 6.1.5. Gravure
- 6.1.6. Other Types
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.2.1. Packaging
- 6.2.2. Advertising
- 6.2.3. Publishing
- 6.2.4. Other Applications
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 7. Norway Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 7.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 7.1.2. Inkjet
- 7.1.3. Flexographic
- 7.1.4. Screen
- 7.1.5. Gravure
- 7.1.6. Other Types
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.2.1. Packaging
- 7.2.2. Advertising
- 7.2.3. Publishing
- 7.2.4. Other Applications
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 8. Finland Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 8.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 8.1.2. Inkjet
- 8.1.3. Flexographic
- 8.1.4. Screen
- 8.1.5. Gravure
- 8.1.6. Other Types
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.2.1. Packaging
- 8.2.2. Advertising
- 8.2.3. Publishing
- 8.2.4. Other Applications
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 9. Denmark Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 9.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 9.1.2. Inkjet
- 9.1.3. Flexographic
- 9.1.4. Screen
- 9.1.5. Gravure
- 9.1.6. Other Types
- 9.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9.2.1. Packaging
- 9.2.2. Advertising
- 9.2.3. Publishing
- 9.2.4. Other Applications
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 10. Rest of Nordic Region Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 10.1.1. Offset Lithography
- 10.1.2. Inkjet
- 10.1.3. Flexographic
- 10.1.4. Screen
- 10.1.5. Gravure
- 10.1.6. Other Types
- 10.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 10.2.1. Packaging
- 10.2.2. Advertising
- 10.2.3. Publishing
- 10.2.4. Other Applications
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 11. Sweden Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 11.1.1.
- 12. Norway Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 12.1.1.
- 13. Finland Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 13.1.1.
- 14. Denmark Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 14.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 14.1.1.
- 15. Rest of Nordic Region Nordic Commercial Printing Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 15.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 15.1.1.
- 16. Competitive Analysis
- 16.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 16.2. Company Profiles
- 16.2.1 Ålgård Offset*List Not Exhaustive
- 16.2.1.1. Overview
- 16.2.1.2. Products
- 16.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.2 Gota Media AB
- 16.2.2.1. Overview
- 16.2.2.2. Products
- 16.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.3 Tryck i Norrbotten
- 16.2.3.1. Overview
- 16.2.3.2. Products
- 16.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.4 Aller Tryk A/S
- 16.2.4.1. Overview
- 16.2.4.2. Products
- 16.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.5 Amedia Trykk og Distribusjon
- 16.2.5.1. Overview
- 16.2.5.2. Products
- 16.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.6 ScandBook Holding
- 16.2.6.1. Overview
- 16.2.6.2. Products
- 16.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.7 V-TAB AB
- 16.2.7.1. Overview
- 16.2.7.2. Products
- 16.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.8 Pressgrannar AB
- 16.2.8.1. Overview
- 16.2.8.2. Products
- 16.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.9 Botnia Print
- 16.2.9.1. Overview
- 16.2.9.2. Products
- 16.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.10 Bold Printing Group AB
- 16.2.10.1. Overview
- 16.2.10.2. Products
- 16.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.11 UPC Center
- 16.2.11.1. Overview
- 16.2.11.2. Products
- 16.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.12 Schibsted Trykk AS
- 16.2.12.1. Overview
- 16.2.12.2. Products
- 16.2.12.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.12.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.12.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.13 Daily Print
- 16.2.13.1. Overview
- 16.2.13.2. Products
- 16.2.13.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.13.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.13.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.14 Alma Manu Oy
- 16.2.14.1. Overview
- 16.2.14.2. Products
- 16.2.14.3. SWOT Analysis
- 16.2.14.4. Recent Developments
- 16.2.14.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 16.2.1 Ålgård Offset*List Not Exhaustive
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Nordic Commercial Printing Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Nordic Commercial Printing Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 2.27%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Nordic Commercial Printing Market?
Key companies in the market include Ålgård Offset*List Not Exhaustive, Gota Media AB, Tryck i Norrbotten, Aller Tryk A/S, Amedia Trykk og Distribusjon, ScandBook Holding, V-TAB AB, Pressgrannar AB, Botnia Print, Bold Printing Group AB, UPC Center, Schibsted Trykk AS, Daily Print, Alma Manu Oy.
3. What are the main segments of the Nordic Commercial Printing Market?
The market segments include Type, Application.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
; Potential Industry Sectors & Increased Demand for Promotional Materials by the Retail. Food and Beverage Industries; The Introduction of Eco-friendly Practices. Reducing the Printing Industry's Impact on the Environment.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Digital Printing is Expected to Grow Significantly.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
; Increase in Digitization and Rising Dependence on Feedstock Prices.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Nordic Commercial Printing Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Nordic Commercial Printing Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Nordic Commercial Printing Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Nordic Commercial Printing Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence